International Terrorism and Food Insecurity in West Africa Sub-Region: The Case of Boko Haram, 2017-2022
Keywords:
Terrorism, International Terrorism, Food, Insecurity, Boko Haram
Abstract
Boko Haram has become one of the deadliest international terrorist groups across the globe. Its activities have also become increasingly alarming following the death of its founder, Mohammad Yusuf, in 2009, while he was in police custody. To this end, this paper investigated international terrorism and food insecurity in West Africa, with a focus on the Boko Haram terrorist group in Nigeria. This study adopted the instrumental theory of terrorism. Oral interviews, documentaries, and historical designs were employed. The study relied on both primary (interview) and secondary data. Content analysis was adopted as its analytical tool. The paper argued that international terrorism has deepened food insecurity in West Africa with the disruptive activities of Boko Haram.
References
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2. Adelaja, A., George, J., Miyahaa, T. & Penar, E. (2019). Food insecurity and terrorism. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 41(3), 475-497.
3. Adeoti, J. (1989). Economic crises in developing countries: The food dimension. Ilorin Journal of Business and Social Sciences
4. Africa Center for Strategic Studies (February 16, 2021). Food insecurity crisis mounting in Africa. Infographic. https://africacenter.org/spolight/food-insecurity-crisis-mounting-africa/
5. Africa Center for Strategic Studies, (2021). Boko Haram and ISWA target Nigeria highways. Infographic. https://africacenter.org/spolight/boko-haram-iswa-target-nigeria-highways/
6. Africa Center for Strategic Studies, (2021). Boko Haram violence against civilians spiking in northern CameroonC:\Users\Eyina\Downloads\Spike in militant islamist violence in Africa underscores shifting security landscape. Infographic. https://africacenter.org/spolight/boko-haram-violence-against-civilians-spiking-in-northern-Cameroon/
7. Akyeampong, E. K. (2006). Themes in West Africa’s history. James Corey Publishers.
8. Arias, M.A., Ibáñez, A. M., & Zambrano, A. (2018). Agricultural production amid conflict: Separating the effects of conflict into shocks and uncertainty. World Development. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.
9. Awodola, B. & Oboshi, A. (2015). Terrorism in Northern Nigeria: A threat to food security in Maiduguri. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(3), 12-16.
10. Bala, B. K., Alias, E. F., Arshad, F. M., Noh, K. M., & Hadi, A. H. A. (2014). Modeling of food security in Malaysia. Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, (47), 152-167.
11. Barga, T. (2012). Towards a theology of peace: A panacea to terrorism and violence. Jos Studies, 20(1), 1-24.
12. Baumann, M. & Kuemmerle, T. (2016). The impacts of warfare and armed conflict on land systems. Journal of Land Use Science, 11(6), 672-688.
13. Berhanu, M. & Wolde, A.O. (2019). Review on climate change impacts and its adaptation strategies on food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Agrise, 19(3), 145-154.
14. Cadre harmonisé (2021). Sahel and West Africa: Food and nutrition security situation. CILSS publication.
15. Crenshaw, M. (1987). Theories of terrorism: Instrumental and organizational approaches. Journal of Strategic Studies, 10(4), 13-31.
16. Egbuna, E. N. (2001). Food security in Nigeria: The challenges and way forward. Paper presented at the Annual conference of The Nigerian Economic Society on Natural Resource use, the Environment and Sustainable Development, 307-325.
17. Eklund, L.; Persson, A. & Pilesjö, P. (2016). Cropland changes in times of conflict, recon-struction, and economic development in Iraqi Kurdistan. Ambio, (45), 78-88.
18. Enders, W. & Sandler, T. (2000). Transnational terrorism in the post-Cold War era. International Studies Quarterly, 43 (1), 309.
19. European Commission, (2022). https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/region/sahel-lake-chad_en
20. Faborode, J. (July 08, 2022). Rising stakes of fragility in West Africa’s Sahel and Lake Chad Basin Regions. The Fund for Peace. www.fragilestatesindex.org/2022/07/08/rising-stakes-of-fragility-in-west-africas-sahel-and-lake-chad-basin-regions/
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22. FAO, (2017). Northeastern Nigeria: Situation Report-January 2017. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/3/a-bs154e.pdf.
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26. Fraym, (2020). Malian insecurity expanded first into Burkina Faso’s northern regions and then spread primarily to its eastern regions. https://fraym.io/blog/violence-in-burkina-faso/
27. George, J. Adelaja, A. & Weatherspoon, D. (2020). Armed conflicts and food insecurity: Evidence from Boko Haram’s attacks. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 102(1), 114-131.
28. Global Terrorism Index (November 2015, 2015). Terrorism rankings. Institute for Economics and Peace. https://economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/global-terrorism-index-2015.pdf
29. Goerg, M. & Dembinski, S. (March 19, 2015). Boko Haram is now a global threat. RealClear.World.https://www.realclearworld.com/articles/2015/03/19/boko_haram_is_now_a_global_threat_111059.html#!
30. Henk-Jan & Hendrix, S. H. (2011). Food security and violent conflict: Causes, consequences, and addressing the challenges. World Food Programme Occasional Paper no. 24, July, 2011.
31. Hertel, T. W., Burke M. B. & Lorell, D. B. (2010). The poverty implications of climate-induced crop yield changes by 2030. Global Environmental Change, 20(4), 577-585.
32. Hilary, M. (26 October, 2017). Boko Haram: History and context. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African. https://oxfordre.com/Africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefire/9780190277734. 001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-119
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34. Hopkins, A. G. (2014). An economic history of West Africa. Longman Press.
35. Ibrahim, Y. (February 26, 2012). Maiduguri: Markets now targeted for attack by Boko Haram. Sunday Trust, p. 22. www.sundaytrust.com
36. Institute for Security Studies (2019). Economic of terrorism in Lake Chad Basin. ISSAFRICA. https://issafrica.org/iss-today/economics-of-terrorism-in-lake-chad-basin
37. Issa, Z. M. (2017). The terrorist organizations in the Arab States, and the procedures for confronting them. Afaq Arab Journal, (1), 12-34
38. Kleinman, R. E., Murphy, J. M., Wieneke, K. M., Desmond, M. S., Schiff, A., & Gapinsk, J. A. (2010). Poverty, food insecurity, and the behavior for childhood internalizing and externalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5). www.jaacap.org
39. Lawal, N. (March 01, 2022). List of top 10 most terrorised countries in the World in 2022 emerges, Nigeria's latest ranking revealed. Legit.ng. https://www.legit.ng/nigeria/1458625-list-top-10-most-terrorised-countries-world-2022-emerges-nigerias-latest-ranking-revealed/
40. Mahafzah, E. M. & Toubat, H. (2020). The concept of international terrorism in accordance with UN Security Council Resolutions. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 12(9), 296-306.
41. Map of World (www.mapofworld.com/africa/regions/western-africa-map.html)
42. Martin-Shields, C. P., & W. Stojetz, W. (2018). Food security and conflict: Empirical challenges and future opportunities for research and policy making on food security and conflict. World Development. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.07.011
43. Mohammad, S. (2022). Personal interview, 11th March, 2022, Maiduguri.
44. Moore, R. S. (2003). Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution. George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution.
45. Musemwa, L.; Muchenje, V.; Mushunje, A.; Aghdasi, F. & Zhou, L. (2015). Household food insecurity in the poorest province of South Africa: level, causes and coping strategies. Food Security, 7(3), 647-655.
46. Nwankwo, E. O., Cymeh, J. K., Oji, D. O. & Echeonwu, M. S. (2022). The trajectory of border management and national security in Nigeria: An empirical analysis. International Journal of Development and Public Policy, 2(9), 14-27.
47. Oftedal, E. (2013). Boko Haram: An Overview. Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, (FFI), 5.
48. Ojo, O. & Adebayo, P. F. (2012). Food security in Nigeria: An overview. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 1(2), 199-222.
49. Olanrewaju, J. S. (2015). Globalisation of terrorism: A case study of Boko Haram in Nigeria. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 6(6), 1-22.
50. Onapajo, H., Uzodike, U. O., & Whetho, A. (2012). Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria: The international dimension. South African Journal of International Affairs, 19 (3), 337-357.
51. Onuoha, F. C. (2014). A danger not to Nigeria alone: Boko Haram’s transnational reach and regional responses. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
52. Osagie, C. (November 8, 2013). Fear of food insecurity grips Nigeria. ThisDay. p. 24. www.thisday.com
53. Oyinloye, O. D., Akinola, O. O. & Akande, Y. O. (2018). Food insecurity in Africa. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 23 (9), 68-75.
54. Pham, J. P. (2012). Boko Haram’s evolving threat. African Centre for Strategic Studies, (20), 15.
55. Pham, J. P. (2016). Boko Haram: The strategic evolution of the Islamic State’s West Africa Province. The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 7(1), 1-18.
56. Pinstrup-Andersen, P. (2009). Food security: definition and measurement. Food Security, 1(1), 5-7.
57. Silke, A. (2018). The study of terrorism and counterterrorism. In A. Silke (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism. Routledge.
58. Smith, M. D., Kassa, W., & Winters, P. (2017). Assessing food insecurity in Latin America and the Caribbean using FAO’s food insecurity experience scale. Food Policy, (71), 48-61.
59. START Consortium, 2012)
60. Tanchum, M. (2012). Al-Qa’ida’s West African advance: Nigeria’s Boko Haram, Mali’s Toureg and the spread of Salafi Jihadism. Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, 6(2).
61. The National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START). 2017. Global Terrorism Database (GTD). http://www.start.umd.edu/ data-tools/global-terrorism-database-gtd.
62. The Nordic Africa Institute (2021). https://nai.uu.se/news-and-events/news/2021-09-21-insecurity-in-burkina-faso—beyond-conflict-minerals-the-complex-links-between-artisanal-gold-mining-and-violence.html
63. Trosper, T. B. (2009). West Africa’s war on terrorism: Time and patience. Being a dissertation for the award of Master of Strategic Studies Degree, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks.
64. United Nations Security Council Resolutions No. 1566/2004, 2396/2017. https://www. un.org/securitycouncil/content/resolutions.
65. UNOCHA (2021). https://fts.unocha.org/countries/36/summary/2021
66. Verwimp, P., & Muñoz-Mora. J. C. (2018). Returning home after Civil War: Food security and nutrition among Burundian households. The Journal of Development Studies 54 (6), 1019-1040.
67. Walker, A. (2012). What is Boko Haram? Special Report, United States Institute of Peace. www.usip.org/files/resources/SR308.pdf
68. WFP, (2021). https://www.wfp.org/news/conflict-economic-fragility-and-rising-food-prices-drive-hunger-west-and-central-africa
69. Wissi, O. H. (2011). International terrorism and its legal and political manifestations in the light of the provisions of public international law. Legal Books House.
Published
2022-12-31
How to Cite
Onuabuchi, N. E., Harcourt, A. E., Augustine, O. O., & ThankGod, B. (2022). International Terrorism and Food Insecurity in West Africa Sub-Region: The Case of Boko Haram, 2017-2022. Central Asian Journal of Social Sciences and History, 3(12), 357-371. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/8U9PZ
Section
Articles
